![]() Water depth and behavioral state were the largest predictors of gray whale movement and respiration patterns. Mixed models were used to examine 13 movement and 10 respiration response variables relative to “natural,” acoustic, and non-acoustic explanatory variables. A total of 1270 tracks (mean duration = 0.9 h) and 401 focal follows (1.1 h) were collected with gray whales exposed to sounds ranging from 59 to 172 dB re 1 μPa 2 SPL. Behavioral data were combined with acoustic and benthic information from studies conducted during the same period. Five shore-based teams monitored gray whale behavior from 1 June to 30 September using theodolite tracking and focal follow methodologies. This study examined the behavioral response of gray whales relative to vessel proximities and sounds generated during seismic exploration. Mitigation and monitoring plans were developed prior to the survey and implemented in the field, with real-time data transfers to assist the implementation of measures aimed at minimizing impacts of acoustic exposure. In 2015, four seismic vessels, contracted by two operators, conducted surveys near and within the gray whale feeding grounds. Gray whales utilizing their foraging grounds off northeastern Sakhalin Island, Russia, have been increasingly exposed to anthropogenic activities related to oil and gas development over the past two decades.
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